This information was supplied by Rebecca Penwell

Lab # 1

• Compound vs. Light Microscopes
• Metric system

Prokaryotes

• cells lacking membrane-bound organelles

Kingdom Archaebacteria

• unusual cell walls
• unique metabolic cofactors

live in anaerobic atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide and hydrogen

Kingdom Eubacteria

• coccus (spherical)
• bacillius (rod-shaped)
• spirilliuim (spiral)
• most bacteria are heterotrophic-decomposers
• some autotrophic
• bacteria reproduce asexually via fission, cell's DNA replicates and cell pinches in half
• some bacteria have genetic re-combination via conjugation-all or part of genetic material of one bacterium is transferred to another bacterium and a new set of genes is assembled

Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria

• certain bacteria and cyanobacteria transfer atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into other nitrogenous compounds that can be used as nutrients by plant-nitrogen fixation

Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae)

• photosynthetic bacteria
• some live freely and some symbiotically with plants and other organisms
• oscillatoria- grows as long chains of cells called trichomes
• trichomes of Nostoc consists of small vegetative cells and larger, thick-walled heterocysts in which nitrogen fixation occurs
• Gleocapsa-thick gelatinous sheath

Eukaryotes

• cells contain membrane-bound organelles
• elodea
• human cheek cell
• plant cell has a cell wall made of cellulose and chloroplasts used for photosynthesis
• animal cell does not have a cell wall or chloroplasts

Lab # 2

Kingdom Protista

Protozoans

• animal-like consumers
• food vacuole to enclose food for digestion
• contractile vacuole to expel excess water
• eukaryotes
• oldest and most diverse of all 4 kingdoms of eukaryotes
• include all eukaryotes that lack the distinguishing characteristics of plants, animals or fungi

unicellular

• algae
• photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms lacking multicellular sex organs
• unicellular algal species occur as single, unattached cells that may or may not be motile
• filamentous algal species -chains of cells can be branched or unbranched
• colonial algae occurs as groups of cells attached to each other in a non-ilamentous manner

all cells of colony are similar in structure and function and metabolically independent

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae)

• unicellular green algae: chlamydomas
• note stigma, appears as reddish, light absorbing spot at the anterior end of the cell
• usually reproduce asexually via mitosis
• sexual reproduction response to unfavorable environmental conditions

know life cycle

• filamentous green algae : spirogyra and cladophora
• spirogyra non-flagellated isogametes
• sexual reproduction-conjugation
• cladophora-diploid stage produces spore-sporophyte
• haploid stage produces gametes-gametophyte
• alternation of generation
• colonial green algae: volvox
• volvox consists of many chlamydomonas-like cells bound in a common spherical matrix
• each cell- 2 flagella
• reproduces by oogamy-motile sperm swim to and fuse with large, non-motile eggs-diploid zygote
• during asexual reproduction, some cells of volvox divide, bulge inward and produce new colonies called daughter cells that are initially held within the parent colony

Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)

• mostly marine
• no unicellular or colonial brown algae
• brown pigment-fucoxanthin
• sargassum and fucus
• tips of fucus branches called conceptacles, may be swollen and contain reproductive structures oogonia (female) and antheridia (male)
• life cycle

Phylum Rhodophyta (Red Algae)

• red pigment-red phycobilins
• polysiphonis and porphyra

Phylum Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)

• unicellular algae
• pigment-xanthophyll-golden brown
• hard cell wall of silicon dioxide (glass)
• walls arranged in overlapping halves
• these walls may accumulate in layers of diatomaceous earth

Phylum Dinoflagellata (Dinoflagellates)

• unicellular
• 2 flagella
• cause red tide
• cell wall of cellulose
• some bioluminescent
• peridinium
• longitudinal and transverse flagella and flagellar grooves

Phylum Euglenophyta (Euglenoids)

• unicellular algae
• cell walls of protein
• 2 flagella
• euglena

Phylum Rhizopoda (Ameobas)

• pseudopods-movable extensions of cytoplasm used for locomotion and gathering food
• no flagella
• reproduces asexually
• phagocytic-engulfs food particles and forms a food vacuole surrounded by a membrane
• secretes enzymes into food vacuole for intracellular digestion
• contractile vacuole maintains cell's water balance by accumulating and expelling excess water

Phylum Foraminifera (Forams)

• marine, shelled amoebas
• secrete shell- test made of calcium carbonate and has hole for pseudopods to protrude from
• have pseudopods

Phylum Zoomastigina (Zoomastigotes)

• heterotrophic
• at least one flagella
• most primitive protozoans
• parasitic and free-living
• trypanosoma- pathogenic and causes African sleeping sickness
• undulating membrane-thin, flat surface that can be undulated or waved for locomotion

Phylum Ciliophora (Cilliates)

• cillia
• paramecium
• sexual reproduction-conjugation
• asexual reproduction is more common and includes mitosis and transverse fission
• vorticella
• contractile stalk
• localized cillia

Lab # 3

Phylum Sporozoa (Sporozoans)

• all non-motile
• spore-forming
• parasites of animals
• plasmodium
• best known sporozoan, most common killer of humans in history
• causes malaria
• mosquitoes transmit plasmodium from human to human
• these malarial parasites infect and rupture red blood cells, causing cycles of fever and chills
• live cycle of plasmodium

Slime Molds

• amoeboid characteristics
• phagocytic nutrition
• unique unicellular forms and assemblages

Phylum Myxomycota (Plasmodial Slime Molds)

• mass of brightly colored protoplasm called a plasmodium-individual cells are indistinguishable
• plasmodium are coenocytic- their nuclei are not separated by cell walls and they resemble a moving mass of slime
• eat bacteria and yeasts
• physarum
• if environmental conditions are not optimal
• plasmodium may dry into a hard resistant structure-sclerotium and remain dormant until conditions improve
• or if light is available, the diploid plasmodium will move to the exposed area and coalesce
• life cycle

Kingdom Fungi

• basic structure of a fungus is the hypha (hyphae)- a slender filament of cytoplasm and haploid nuclei enclosed by a cell wall
• hyphae of some phyla and species have crosswalls called septa that separate cytoplasm and one or more nuclei into cells
• other hyphae have incomplete or no septa (aseptate) and therefore are coenocytic (multinucleate)
• mycelium s a collective term for a cotton-like mass of hyphae constituting an individual organism
• may permeate soil, water, and living tissue
• cell walls of fungi are made of chitin
• through the chitinous cell wall a fungus secretes enzymes for extra cellular digestion
• fungi are heterotrophs-gain energy from organic molecules made by other organisms
• fungi are saprophytes-most obtain nourishment from dead organic matter
• fungi are parasites-feed on living organisms
• many parasitic fungi have modified hyphae- haustoria- thin extensions of the hyphae that penetrate living cells and absorb nutrients
• asexual reproduction
• by production of haploid vegetative cells-spores in sporangia, conidiophores, and other structures
• life cycle of fungus
• phototaxis-orientation of an organism to light
• budding-mitosis with uneven distribution of cytoplasm (common in yeats) after budding, cell with less cytoplasm detaches an becomes a new organism
• fragmentation-breaking of organism into one or more pieces, each becomes new organism
• sexual reproduction
• when hyphae of 2 genetically different individuals of the same species encounter each other
• life cycle

Phylum Zygomycota (Bread Mold)

• resting sexual spores-zygospores
• most saprophytic
• vegetative hyphae lack septa (aseptate)
• rhizopus
• hyphae are modified into rhizoids (holdfasts), stolons (connecting hyphae), and sporangiophores (asexual reproductive structures)
• life cycle
• common name black bread mold because it is dark in color
• isogamous - + and - gametes look alike
• sexual reproduction
• conjugating fungi
• life cycle

Phylum Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)

• yeasts, some molds, morels, and truffles
• sac-shaped reproductive structure- ascus
• asexual reproduction by forming spores- conidia
• Aspergillus
• yeast exhibits budding
• yeasts used to make wine and beer
• saccharomyces-yeast
• peziza-cup fungus
• sexual reproduction
• life cycle

Phylum Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)

• most familiar fungi
• mushroom, puffballs, shelf fungi, rusts and smuts
• note cap, pileus, and gills on the undersurface of the cap of a mushroom
• gills are lined with microscopic, club-shaped cells - basidia where sexual reproduction occurs
• sexual reproduction
• life cycle
• coprinus- common mushroom

Fungi Imperfecti (Deuteromycota)

• an artificial rather than a phylogenetic classification that includes species with no known sexual or "perfect" phase
• these fungi have apparently lost their ability to reproduce sexually
• penicillium
• economically important
• used to produce antibiotics

Lichens

• a symbiotic relationship between an ascomycete (rarely other fungi) and a photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria
• asexual reproduction
• by releasing fragments of tissue or specialized, stress-resistant packets of fungal and algal cells
• sexual reproduction
• each of the 2 components (fungus and algae) may reproduce sexually by mechanisms characteristic of their phylum, and the new organisms may continue the lichen association
• the durable construction of fungi and the photosynthetic properties of algae, allows lichens to inhabit the harshest terrestrial environments
• lichens have 3 basic growth forms: crustose, foliose, and fruticose
• lichens are extremely sensitive to air pollution due to the fact that they are adapted to efficiently absorb nutrients and mineral from the air

Lab # 4

Kingdom Plantae

• Gymnosperms are plants with exposed seeds borne on scale-like structures called cones. Like ferns, gymnosperms have a well-developed alternation of generations. Unlike ferns, however, gymnosperms are heterosporous (they produce two kinds of spores.
• Microspores occur in male cones and form male gametophytes.
• Megaspores occur in female cones and form female gametophytes

Phylum Cycadophyta (Cycads)

• sperm are flagellated

Phylum Ginkgophyta

• ginkgo biloba

Phylum Coniferophyta

• The coniferophyta are a large group of cone-bearing plants.
• In conifers, sporophylls of male cones are called microsporophylls. On the surface of each microsporophyll is a layer of cells called a microsporangium that produces spores.
• Sporophylls of female cones are megasporangia; each bears two spore-producing megasporangia on its upper surface.
• life cycles
• Pine Sporophyte
• pinus
• life cycle
• Each scale (microsporopyll) of the male cone bears a microsporangium, which in turn produces diploid microspore mother cells.
• Microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to produce microspores that develop into microgametophytes called pollen grains.
• megaspore mother cell
• megaspore
• megagematophyte
• nucellus
• integuments
• ovule
• ovuliferous scales
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen to a receptive surface.
• Seed

Phylum Gnetophyta

• welwitschia plants

Lab # 5

Kingdom Plantae

• autotrophic
• contain chlorophyll a
• cell walls made of cellulose
• life cycles-variations of alternation of generations
• bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts)
• most primitive group of terrestrial plants
• green
• root structures- called rhizoids
• many have stem and leaf-like parts
• no specialized vascular tissues which transport food and water between roots and shoots
• fix carbon dioxide
• degrade rock to soil
• stabilize soil
• reduce erosion
• plant body called a thallus
• antheridia male sex organs that produce swimming, biflagellate sperm
• sperm fertilize eggs produced in the archegonia-female sex organ
• fertilized egg s a zygote
• life cycles

Phylum Hepaticophyta (Liverworts)

• marchantia
• note Y-shaped (dichotomous) growth
• chlorenchyma- chloroplast-containing cells
• asexual reproduction
• gemmae cups
• gemmae
• life cycle
• sexual reproduction
• dioecious- have separate male and female plants
• archegoniophores
• neck
• venter
• antheridiophores
• flagellated sperm are released from the antheridia and swim to fertilize the egg in the venter
• life cycle
• liverwort sporophyte
• foot
• spores
• capsule
• stalk
• elaters

Phylum Bryophyta (Mosses)

• polytrichum
• gametophyte is radially symmetrical vs. Gametophyte of liverwort which is Y-shaped and bilaterally symmetrical
• mosses absorb a lot of water
• mosses reproduce asexually by fragmentation
• sexual reproduction
• dioecious
• life cycle
• moss sporophyte
• capsules
• seta
• foot
• calyptra
• operculum
• protonema

Phylum Anthocerophyta (Hornworts)

• did not look at in class but should be aware of the phylum
• Seedless vascular plants (4 phyla) of non-flowering plants that have a vascular system of fluid-conducting xylem and phloem
• their vascular system connects true leaves, roots, and stems
• in these plants the sporophyte is the dominant phase of the life cycle
• conversely, gymnosperms (pine trees) and angiosperms (flowering plants) have been referred to as higher vascular plants or seed-forming plants
• megaphylls
• microphylls
• sporophylls

Phylum Pterophyta (Ferns)

• independent sporophyte
• well-developed vascular tissue
• have stomata
• rhizomes
• fronds
• stalk
• blade
• pinnae
• sori
• sporangia
• indusium
• annulus
• life cycle
• fern reproduction
• protonema
• prothallium
• fiddlehead
• homosporous
• heterosporous
• megaspores
• microspores

Phylum Lycophyta (Club Mosses)

• true roots, stems, and leaves
• lycopodium
• sporophyls
• strobili
• selaginella

Phylum Psilophyta (Whisk Ferns)

• psilotum lacks leaves and roots and is homosporous

Phylum Sphenophyta (Scouring Rush)

• equisetum
• jointed and ribbed stem
• porangiophores

Lab # 6

Kingdom Plantae

Phylum Anthophyta (Flowering Plants)

• angiosperms
• most abundant, diverse and widespread of all plants
• success due to structural diversity, efficient vascular systems, mutualisms (especially with fungus and insects), and short generation times
• sporophyte is large and independent of the microscopic gametophyte
• gametophyte depends totally on the sporophyte
• divided into monocots and dicots (know the difference between these two)
• peduncle
• receptacle
• sepals
• calyx
• petals
• corolla
• perianth
• androecium
• stamens
• filament
• anther
• pollen grains
• gynoecium
• carpels
• ovary style
• stigma
• ovules
• regular flowers-radially symmetrical
• irregular flowers-bilaterally symmetrical
• generative nucleus
• life cycle
• sporophyte
• gametophyte
• sporogenesis
• microspores
• megaspores
• gametogenesis
• microsporogenesis
• microsporangia
• microspore mother cell
• tube nucleus
• generative nucleus
• sperm nuclei
• lilium
• megasporogenesis
• megaspore mother cell
• megagametogenesis
• megagametophyte
• ovule
• integuments
• embryo sac
• egg
• synergid nuclei
• antipodal cells
• polar nuclei
• double fertilization
• seed and embryo development
• proembryo stage
• zygote
• embryo
• basal cell
• suspensor
• endosperm
• globular stage
• heart-shaped stage
• cotyledon
• torpedo stage
• mature embryo
• stem apical
• meristem
• radicle
• root apical meristem
• root cap
• hypocotly
• epicotyl
• capsella
• micropyle
• hilum
• embryo with young root and shoot-develops into a new sporophyte
• endosperm
• cotyledon
• coleoptile
• root
• root cap
• coleorhiza
• shoot apical meristem
• fruit
• fruit
• dry
• fleshy
• pericarp
• exocarp
• mesocarp
• endocarp
• placental tissues
• know how to use dichotomous key to major types of fruit
• roots
• radicle
• primary root
• secondary root
• taproot system
• fibrous root system
• primary growth
• apical meristem
• secondary growth
• root cap
• root apical meristem
• zone of elongation
• zone of maturation
• root hairs
• epidermis
• cortex
• amyloplasts
• endodermis
• pericycle
• secondary roots
• vascular cylinder
• xylem
• phloem
• tracheids
• vessels
• sieve cells
• sieve tube members
• lignin
• stems
• shoot apical meristem
• leaf primordia
• node
• auxiliary bud
• terminal bud
• bud scars
• leaf scars
• internodes
• vascular bundle scars
• bud scale scars
• epidermis
• cutin
• cortex
• pith
• collenchyma cells
• sclerenchyma fibers
• dicots
• cotyledons
• monocot
• vascular cambium
• bark
• periderm
• cork cambium
• lenticel
• leaves
• blade
• petiole
• simple leaves
• compound leaves
• leaflets
• palmate
• pinnate
• venation
• parallel veins
• pinnately veined
• palmately veined
• phyllotaxis
• opposite phyllotaxis
• alternate phyllotaxis
• whorled phyllotaxis
• stomata
• palisade mesophyll spongy mesophyll
• guard cells

This page was created and is maintained by Thomas Pitzer

Back