FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

The State University of Florida at Miami

Department of Geology

GLY 1010 Introduction the Earth Sciences

SOME NOTES ON THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The outsider to science is tempted to think that science is merely the accumulation of "facts". Facts are important in science, but are only part of a larger structure composed of theories, hypotheses, and models that attempt to not just catalogue the facts, but to explain them.

The Scientific Method has evolved into a sophisticated system of investigation of nature. The system is conducted within a rational and logical framework which does not make appeals to the supernatural to explain nature's phenomena. The structure of scientific methodology has several components: data gathering, hypotheses, theories and models.

Data Gathering

A preliminary stage in scientific investigation of is to gather information about the particular phenomena being investigated. Investigators strive to be as objective as possible. It is important that fact be distinguished from fiction and rumor. The best observations are those that can be verified by independent investigators. The observations must be carefully documented.

A second aspect of data gathering is to collate and classify the information in order to see if any patterns are present in the data. At this stage it may be possible to formulate various laws, which are generalizations derived from looking at many particular observations.

Hypotheses

Hypotheses are attempted explanations of the observed natural history. They try to connect disparate phenomena by stating a common underlying principle. A hypothesis is more than a wild guess; it should explain all the observed phenomena and it should also make predictions about phenomena not yet observed. The predictions should be capable of being confirmed or refuted by further observation and/or experiment. This is an important point. A hypothesis has to be constructed in such a way that it is falsifiable (ie. capable of being refuted, at least in principle). If this cannot be done then the hypothesis is logically unsound and cannot be regarded as a scientific hypothesis. Hypotheses are necessarily temporary. Either they are unsuccessful, in which case they are forgotten, or they are successful, in which case they assume the status of a theory.

Models

Models are explanations of particular phenomena derived from the principles of a broader hypothesis or theory. They are usually "constructed" (the same terminology is used as for material models) to test the theory or hypothesis. Certain simplified assumptions are often made. If the model is unsuccessful at explaining a phenomena, it is reformulated using more complicated assumptions. The idea of a model is important in understanding what are the most important factors which give rise to a phenomena.

Theories

A scientific theory is what a hypothesis or group of hypotheses becomes if their predictions are successful. A theory also has a wide scope. In other words, it links together many disparate phenomena and has wide and profound explanatory power. It is also forms a research program in that it gives a context within which further scientific investigations can be made. Thus, within science "theory" has a much more profound meaning than in everyday life. The common perjorative "it's only a theory" is erroneous; rather a theory is the highest and most powerful form of scientific explanation.

Nonethless, theories are not carved in stone. They may be less temporary than hypotheses, but as new phenomena are discovered that are not explained by the theory, it may have to be replaced (theories are rarely simply abandoned). The new theory has broader scope than the old theory, and in fact the old theory may just be viewed as an approximation, applicable in certain restricted circumstances, of the new theory.

Iterative aspect of scientific method

As is implied above, science is a dynamic process. Observations lead to laws and hypotheses, hypotheses and models to theories, and theories to newer theories. Hypotheses, models and theories are constantly being evaluated by comparing their predictions with new observations. In the experimental sciences (physics, chemistry, aspects of biology), the observations are derived from experiments, which are designed specifically to test hypotheses. In geology, astronomy and certain fields of biology we rely more often on direct observation of the natural world. As a result of the comparison of the hypothesis with the "real world" hypotheses can be adjusted or reformulated to provide a better explanation of the working of nature, which are again tested. There is no room therefore for dogma in science. Scientists know that even their most treasured theories will eventually be replaced by other (and better) ones. Scientists by training, therefore, are critical people . They are always looking for the weak points in a hypothesis and try to make observations that will strongly test that hypothesis. Scientists are also critical when examining each others data because a hypothesis can only be examined properly if the data is accurate and a real reflection of nature.

The Practice of Science

Practicing scientists, whether employed in industry, government or the universities, conduct research, since that is what science is all about. Sometimes the research is applied (ie. it tries to solve a particular problem), at other times the investigations are simply to understand the way nature works, regardless of the social usefulness of the results. The standards and rigor in both types of research are the same.

Besides conducting the research, it is important for scientists to disseminate and publish their results. Research which is not disseminated might as well not be done. The results are submitted as an article or paper to specialized "magazines" called journals. The articles are not published automatically. The editor sends copies of the paper to experts in the field, called referees, who decide whether the article is an original and properly argued contribution to science, and therefore whether it should be published or not. "Recycled" and bad data or hypotheses are not published in journals and will be rejected. This process is called review. (Students are not the only ones who are graded!)

Once the article is published, the research can be examined by other scientists and the observations or new hypotheses incorporated into new research. This is the main way that science is transmitted. Conferences are also important for transmitting results. In science, books are of less importance in transmitting knowledge than in the humanities for example. .

Special features of geology as a science

Geology, in general is conducted in a similar way to the other sciences, but has several feature which distuish it from the other sciences. The main difference is that geology cannot rely only on experiments to provide observations. It must seek "case studies" as preserved in rocks in the field as its primary source of information. This is why field work and field trips are important in geology. It also means that the practice of geology is more like that of a detective or forensic scientist who must try to infer events from what is left over at the scene of the crime. Geologists have to logically deduce geological events from clues left within the rocks. Geologists must, therefore, be astute observers and have "Sherlock Holmes" type minds. While this is a demanding intellectual exercise, it also makes geological research great fun.

Grenville Draper

Department of Geology